Does the coronoid fracture in terrible triad injury always need to be fixed?

BACKGROUND: The ideal treatment of terrble triad injuries and whether fixation of coronoid process fractures is needed or not are still debated. Therefore, we aimed to investigate if terrible triad injuries necessitate coronoid fracture fixation and evaluate if non-fixation treatments have similar efficacies and outcomes as fixation-treatments in cases of terrible triad injuries. METHODS: From August 2011 to July 2020, 23 patients with acute terrible triad injuries without involvement of the anteromedial facet of the coronoid process were included to evaluate the postoperative clinical and radiological outcomes (minimum follow-up of 20 months). According to the preoperative height loss evaluation of the coronoid process and an intraoperative elbow stability test, seven patients underwent coronoid fracture fixation, and the other eight patients were treated conservatively. The elbow range of motion (ROM), Mayo Elbow Performance Score (MEPS), and modified Broberg-Morrey score were evaluated at the last follow-up. In addition, plain radiographs were reviewed to evaluate joint congruency, fracture union, heterotopic ossification, and the development of arthritic changes. RESULTS: At the last follow-up, the mean arcs of flexion-extension and supination-pronation values were 118.2° and 146.8° in the fixation group and 122.5° and 151.3° in the non-fixation group, respectively. The mean MEPSs were 96.4 in the fixation group (excellent, nine cases; good, tow cases) and 96.7 in the non-fixation group (excellent, ten cases; good, two cases). The mean modified Broberg-Morrey scores were 94.0 in the fixation group (excellent, sevev cases; good, four cases) and 94.0 in the non-fixation group (excellent, ten cases; good, tow cases). No statistically significant differences in clinical scores and ROM were identified between the two groups. However, the non-fixation group showed a significantly lower height loss of the coronoid process than the fixation group (36.3% versus 54.5%). CONCLUSIONS: There were no significant differences in clinical outcomes between the fixation and non-fixation groups in terrible triad injuries.

Management of Capitellar Osteochondritis Dissecans: A Critical Analysis Review.

¼ Osteochondritis dissecans of the capitellum is a localized compromise of bone that may lead to subchondral collapse with articular cartilage damage and loose body formation.¼ The etiology is multifactorial; proposed mechanisms include repetitive microtrauma, vascular insufficiency, and genetic predisposition.¼ Diagnosis is based on patient presentation, clinical examination, diagnostic imaging, and intraoperative findings.¼ Management is dependent on lesion characteristics, with stable lesions amenable to nonoperative treatment and unstable lesions managed with surgical intervention.¼ Adolescent athletes can expect a return to their preinjury level of activity or competition following indicated surgical intervention.

[OLECRANON BURSITIS].

INTRODUCTION: The olecranon bursa is a pocket-like structure located at the posterior aspect of the elbow that is responsible for the smooth movement of the surrounding tissues. Frequently, it is the source of elbow pain due to an inflammation which may be caused by local injury or penetration of bacteria through the skin. This can lead to an initial acute and possibly a late chronic inflammation. Chronic inflammation may originate from systemic diseases such as gout and rheumatoid arthritis as well. The treatment of olecranon bursitis may be conservative (non-surgical) or surgical. Recently, there is more supporting evidence for the use of conservative management over surgical intervention in treating olecranon bursitis.

Fragment excision and triceps V-Y advanced reattachment using suture anchor for olecranon nonunion: A case report.

RATIONALE: The nonunion of olecranon fractures is uncommon in simple fractures, and it is challenging to treat surgically due to the disruption of the anatomy of the elbow joint. There is limited literature on surgical options, and several factors to determine the treatment, including the amount and quality of bone stock, age, and degree of articular damage. PATIENT CONCERNS: A 58-year-old man presented at the clinic with neglected olecranon fracture for 1 year (case 1). A 74-year-old man (case 2) presented with consistent pain and limited of motion after surgery for olecranon fracture. DIAGNOSIS: Both patients were diagnosed with olecranon nonunion. INTERVENTION: Both patients received the excision of nonunited fragment and reattaching with V-Y advancement of triceps. OUTCOMES: Range of motion and Mayo elbow performance score were improved after surgery. LESSONS: This technique is useful in patients who cannot undergo other surgical options due to insufficient bone quality and elbow function, and it can lead to satisfactory outcomes with an acceptable range of motion and pain relief.

Biomechanical Assessment Methods Used in Chronic Stroke: A Scoping Review of Non-Linear Approaches.

Non-linear and dynamic systems analysis of human movement has recently become increasingly widespread with the intention of better reflecting how complexity affects the adaptability of motor systems, especially after a stroke. The main objective of this scoping review was to summarize the non-linear measures used in the analysis of kinetic, kinematic, and EMG data of human movement after stroke. PRISMA-ScR guidelines were followed, establishing the eligibility criteria, the population, the concept, and the contextual framework. The examined studies were published between 1 January 2013 and 12 April 2023, in English or Portuguese, and were indexed in the databases selected for this research: PubMed®, Web of Science®, Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers®, Science Direct® and Google Scholar®. In total, 14 of the 763 articles met the inclusion criteria. The non-linear measures identified included entropy (n = 11), fractal analysis (n = 1), the short-term local divergence exponent (n = 1), the maximum Floquet multiplier (n = 1), and the Lyapunov exponent (n = 1). These studies focused on different motor tasks: reaching to grasp (n = 2), reaching to point (n = 1), arm tracking (n = 2), elbow flexion (n = 5), elbow extension (n = 1), wrist and finger extension upward (lifting) (n = 1), knee extension (n = 1), and walking (n = 4). When studying the complexity of human movement in chronic post-stroke adults, entropy measures, particularly sample entropy, were preferred. Kinematic assessment was mainly performed using motion capture systems, with a focus on joint angles of the upper limbs.

Total Elbow Arthroplasty Historical and Current Concepts.

The evolution of total elbow arthroplasty (TEA) has laid the groundwork for modern day TEA and has contributed to our understanding of elbow biomechanics. Trends in the usage of TEA have also varied significantly over time. This article aims to review the history and evolution of the TEA implant with a focus on modern day implant biomechanics and the trends in TEA indications. Additionally, this review discusses various complications that can occur with modern day TEA and looks toward the future to identify innovation and future trends.

Estimating Rotational Acceleration in Shoulder and Elbow Joints Using a Transformer Algorithm and a Fusion of Biosignals.

In the present study, we used a transformer model and a fusion of biosignals to estimate rotational acceleration in elbow and shoulder joints. To achieve our study objectives, we proposed a mechanomyography (MMG) signal isolation technique based on a variational mode decomposition (VMD) algorithm. Our results show that the VMD algorithm delivered excellent performance in MMG signal extraction compared to the commonly used technique of empirical mode decomposition (EMD). In addition, we found that transformer models delivered estimates of joint acceleration that were more precise than those produced by mainstream time series forecasting models. The average R2 values of transformer are 0.967, 0.968, and 0.935, respectively. Finally, we found that using a fusion of signals resulted in more precise estimation performance compared to using MMG signals alone. The differences between the average R2 values are 0.041, 0.053, and 0.043, respectively. Taken together, the VMD isolation method, the transformer algorithm and the signal fusion technique described in this paper can be seen as supplying a robust framework for estimating rotational acceleration in upper-limb joints. Further study is warranted to examine the effectiveness of this framework in other musculoskeletal contexts.

[Comparative study of external fixator combined with Kirschner wire fixation and Kirschner wires fixation in treatment of cubitus varus deformity in children].

Objective: To analyze the effectiveness comparison of external fixator combined with Kirschner wire fixation and Kirschner wire fixation in the treatment of cubitus varus deformity in children. Methods: A retrospective case-control study was conducted to collect 36 children of postoperative supracondylar humerus fracture complicating cubitus varus deformity between January 2018 and July 2022. Among them, 17 cases were treated with distal humeral wedge osteotomy external fixation combined with Kirschner wire fixation (observation group), and 19 cases were treated with distal humeral wedge osteotomy and Kirschner wire fixation (control group). The baseline data including age, gender, deformity side, time from fracture to operation, carrying angle of the healthy side and preoperative carrying angle of the affected side, elbow flexion and extension range of motion, and lateral condylar prominence index (LCPI) showed no significant difference between the two groups ( P>0.05). The operation time, hospitalization cost, healing time of osteotomy, postoperative complications, and the carrying angle, LCPI, and elbow flexion and extention range of motion were recorded and compared between the two groups. The elbow function was assessed by Oppenheim score at 3 months after operation and at last follow-up. Results: The children in both groups were followed up 13-48 months, with an average of 26.7 months. There was 1 case of needle tract infection in the observation group and 2 cases in the control group, and no nerve injury occurred, the difference in the incidence of complication (5.88% vs 10.53%) between the two groups was not significant ( χ 2=0.502, P=0.593). There was no significant difference in the operation time and fracture healing time between the two groups ( P>0.05); the hospitalization cost of the observation group was significantly higher than that of the control group ( P<0.05). The Oppenheim score of the observation group was significantly better than that of the control group at 3 months after operation ( P<0.05), but there was no significant difference in the Oppenheim score between the two groups at last follow-up ( P>0.05). At last follow-up, the carrying angle of affected side significantly improved in both groups when compared with preoperative ones ( P<0.05); the differences of the pre- and post-operative carrying angle of affected side and elbow flexion and extension range of motion showed no significant differences between the two groups ( P>0.05), but the difference in pre- and post-operative LCPI of the observation group was significantly better than that of the control group ( P<0.05). Conclusion: External fixator combined with Kirschner wire fixation and Kirschner wire fixation both can achieve satisfactory correction of cubitus varus deformity in children, and the former can achieve better short-term functional recovery of elbow joint and reduce the incidence of humeral lateral condyle protrusion.

Outcome determinants for coronal shear fractures of the distal humerus.

PURPOSE: Coronal shear fractures of the distal humerus involving the capitellum and trochlea are rare injuries. Internal fixation with headless compression screws provides a stable construct facilitating early mobilisation. Our study aimed to identify the key determinants of both radiological and functional outcomes of patients with distal humerus coronal shear fractures treated with internal fixation. METHODS: A retrospective analysis of 61 patients with distal humerus coronal shear fractures who were treated surgically was done. Demographics, fracture morphology, time to surgery, operative details such as surgical approach and implant used, quality of reduction, time to union, and associated complications from hospital records. Radiological outcomes were assessed using plain radiographs, and the functional outcomes were by Oxford Elbow Score (OES) and Mayo Elbow Performance Index (MEPI). RESULTS: Patients with anatomical reduction of the fracture had better functional outcomes and range of motion. The presence of posterior comminution of capitellum resulted in poorer outcomes (p = 0.03). Delayed presentation did not alter the outcome when the anatomical reduction was achieved. Myositis ossificans was noted in nine patients and non-union in five patients. Two patients developed avascular necrosis of the capitellum and arthritis of the elbow joint. CONCLUSION: Anatomical reduction and posterior comminution are the two key determinants of the functional outcome in these coronal shear fractures of the distal humerus. Early mobilisation following a stable fixation is crucial in achieving a good outcome.

Long-standing Nonunited Fracture Lateral Humeral Condyle in Children. Evaluating a Two-stage Surgical Treatment Strategy With Critical Review.

OBJECTIVE: This work aimed to evaluate the results of using a 2-stage surgical treatment strategy without doing anterior transposition of the ulnar nerve (ATUN) for cases with long-standing nonunited fracture lateral humeral condyle (LHC) in children, accompanied by a critical review. METHODS: A consecutive 12 children with a long-standing ">2 years" nonunited LHC with evident radiologic gross anatomic distortion of the elbow were included in this study. A 2-stage surgical treatment strategy was applied, wherein the first stage, open functional reduction, osteosynthesis, and iliac bone graft were done. Then after 6 months, the second stage surgery was carried out in the form of supracondylar humeral corrective osteotomy if the cubitus valgus angle was ≥20 degrees. ATUN was not done for any of the cases even with those having ulnar nerve dysfunction. RESULTS: Union took place in 11 out of the 12 cases after a mean follow-up period of 11 weeks (range: 8 to 14 wk; SD: 1.6). All the 7 cases showed preoperative ulnar nerve dysfunction and reported clinical recovery at the end of their follow-up. CONCLUSIONS: Two-stage surgical treatment strategy without ATUN is a convenient, reproducible, and successful line of treatment for children presented with longstanding nonunited LHC with anatomically distorted elbow. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV-case series.

TikTok content as a source of health education regarding epicondylitis: a content analysis.

PURPOSE: This study aimed to assess the validity and informational value of TikTok content about epicondylitis. The hypothesis tested herein was that TikTok video content would not provide adequate and valid information. METHODS: The term "epicondylitis" was used as a keyword to comprehensively search for TikTok videos, and the first 100 videos that were retrieved were subsequently included for analysis. The duration, number of likes, number of shares and number of views were recorded for each video. Furthermore, the videos were categorized on the basis of their source (medical doctor, physiotherapist, or private user), type of information (physical therapy, anatomy, clinical examination, etiopathogenesis, patient experience, treatment, or other), video content (rehabilitation, education, or patient experience/testimony), and the presence of music or voice. Assessments of video content quality and reliability were conducted using the DISCERN tool, the Journal of the American Medical Association (JAMA) benchmark criteria, and the Global Quality Score (GQS). RESULTS: A total of 100 videos were included in the analysis: 78 (78.0%) were published by physiotherapists, 18 were published by medical doctors (18.0%), and 4 were published by private users (4.0%). Most of the information pertained to physical therapy (75; 75.0%) and most of the content was about rehabilitation (75; 75.0%). The mean length of the videos was 42.51 ± 24.75 seconds; the mean number of views was 193,207.78 ± 1,300,853.86; and the mean number of comments, likes, and shares were 22.43 ± 62.54, 1578.52 ± 8333.11, and 149.87 ± 577.73, respectively. The mean DISCERN score, JAMA score, and GQS were 18.12 ± 5.73, 0.80 ± 0.53, and 1.30 ± 0.52, respectively. Videos posted by medical doctors/private users had higher scores (p < 0.05) than videos posted by physiotherapists. Videos that focused on education or patient experience had higher scores (p < 0.05) than videos based on rehabilitation. CONCLUSIONS: TikTok can be an unreliable source of information regarding epicondylitis treatment. It is common to find nonphysicians who share medical advice on the platform, with medical treatments demonstrating the weakest level of supporting evidence. Elbow surgeons should advise their patients that treatment recommendations from TikTok may not align with established guidelines. LEVEL OF EVIDENCE: Level IV-Cross-sectional study.

Free flap reconstruction of elbow soft tissue defects: Lessons learned from 15 years of experience.

BACKGROUND: The elbow is a complex joint that is vital for proper function of the upper extremity. Reconstruction of soft tissue defects over the joint space remains challenging, and outcomes following free tissue transfer remain underreported in the literature. The purpose of this analysis was to evaluate the rate of limb salvage, joint function, and clinical complications following microvascular free flap coverage of the elbow. METHODS: This retrospective case series utilized surgical logs of the senior authors (Stephen J Kovach and L Scott Levin) to identify patients who underwent microvascular free flap elbow reconstruction between January 2007 and December 2021. Patient demographics and medical history were collected from the medical chart. Operative notes were reviewed to determine the type of flap procedure performed. The achievement of definitive soft tissue coverage, joint function, and limb salvage status at 1 year was determined from postoperative visit notes. RESULTS: Twenty-one patients (14 male, 7 female, median age 43) underwent free tissue transfer for coverage of soft tissue defects of the elbow. The most common indication for free tissue transfer was traumatic elbow fracture with soft tissue loss (n = 12, [57%]). Among the 21 free flaps performed, 71% (n = 15) were anterolateral thigh flaps, 14% (n = 3) were latissimus dorsi flaps, and 5% (n = 1) were transverse rectus abdominis flaps. The mean flap size was 107.5 cm2. Flap success was 100% (n = 21). The following postoperative wound complications were reported: surgical site infection (n = 1, [5%]); partial dehiscence (n = 5, [24%]); seroma (n = 2, [10%]); donor-site hematoma (n = 1, [5%]); and delayed wound healing (n = 5, [24%]). At 1 year, all 21 patients achieved limb salvage and definitive soft tissue coverage. Of the 17 patients with functional data available, 47% (n = 8) had regained at least 120 degrees of elbow flexion/extension. All patients had greater than 1 year of follow-up. CONCLUSION: Microvascular free flap reconstruction is a safe and effective method of providing definitive soft tissue coverage of elbow defects, as evidenced by high rates of limb salvage and functional recovery following reconstruction.

Treatment of Adult Distal Humerus Fracture with Fishtail Deformity: A Case Report.

CASE: We report a single case of a closed intra-articular distal humerus fracture in a 28-year-old man with a preexisting fishtail deformity characterized by concavity of the central trochlea and corresponding deformity of the olecranon. The patient was treated with open reduction and internal fixation. CONCLUSION: The case highlights the diagnosis and challenges of treatment. Conventional fixation choices and imaging techniques may need to be altered when treating a fracture with this deformity.

Radial head replacement with the 3D-printed patient-specific titanium prosthesis: Preliminary results of a multi-centric prospective study.

PURPOSE: To report preliminary clinical results and safety of 3D-printed patient-specific titanium radial head (RH) prosthesis in treatment of the irreparable RH fractures. MATERIAL AND METHODS: This multi-centric prospective study included 10 patients (6 men and four women, mean age 41 years (range, 25-64 years)). Three cases were classified as Mason type III and 7 cases as type IV. Patients were assessed preoperatively, intraoperatively, and at 1, 6, 12, 24, 36, and 48 weeks postoperatively. Range of motion (ROM), visual analog scale (VAS) score, Disabilities of the Arm, Shoulder and Hand (DASH) score, Mayo Elbow Performance Score (MEPS), radiology imaging, and laboratory blood and urine testing were evaluated. RESULTS: The prostheses were implanted utilizing cemented stems in 5 patients and cementless stems in 5 patients. Intraoperatively, well congruency of a prosthesis with capitellum and radial notch of ulna was observed in all cases. All patients had improvement of ROM, VAS score, DASH score, and MEPS during the postoperative follow-ups. At the final follow-up, mean elbow extension was 6.5° (range, 0°-30°), flexion 145° (range, 125°-150°), supination 79° (range, 70°-80°), and pronation 73.5° (range, 45°-80°). Mean VAS score was 0.3 (range, 0-3), DASH score was 12.35 (range, 1.7-23.3), and MEPS was 99.5 (range, 95-100). Postoperative radiographs demonstrated heterotopic ossification in 2 cases, periprosthetic radiolucency in 2 cases, and proximal radial neck resorption in 2 cases. No one had the evidence of capitellar erosion, implant failure, malpositioning, overstuffing, or symptomatic stem loosening. There was no significant alteration of laboratory results or adverse events related to the 3D-printed prosthesis implantation. CONCLUSION: The preliminary results demonstrated that implantation of the 3D-printed patient-specific titanium RH prosthesis is safe and may be a potential treatment option for irreparable RH fracture.

The efficacy of pediatric elbow radiographic guidance in diagnosis of lateral humeral condyle fracture.

Although lateral humeral condyle fracture is common, the incidence of missed diagnosis is very high. Delayed and missed diagnosis led to significant morbidities and loss of functions. We designed a pediatric elbow radiographic guidance aiming to improve the accuracy of diagnosis. This study was aimed to evaluate the efficacy of the radiographic guidance for the diagnosis of lateral condyle fracture. A cross-sectional study was conducted after defining the essential parameters as a guidance for assessing the pediatric elbow radiographs. We included medical students, emergency medicine, orthopedic, and radiology residents and fellows into this study. A questionnaire was used to evaluate the efficacy of the guidance. All participants underwent a pretest evaluation, followed by studying the guidance, and then finished a posttest evaluation. Baseline characteristics, diagnostic scores, and parameter evaluation scores were collected. The pretest and posttest scores were analyzed using paired t-test. Association between baseline characteristics and diagnostic scores were analyzed using multiple regression analysis. We included 177 participants. Average diagnostic score was significantly increased after using the guidance, from 12.2 ± 1.9 to 13.0 ± 1.7 (p < 0.0001). Medical students showed the most improvement, from 11.9 ± 1.9 to 13.1 ± 1.3 (p <0.001). All means of essential parameter evaluation scores were significantly improved in overall participants.The pediatric elbow radiographic guidance is useful for evaluation and diagnosis of lateral condyle fracture, especially for young physicians and trainees. Therefore, this should be recommended in routine medical education and general practice.

[A multicenter clinical study on the treatment of lateral epicondylitis of humerus by manipulation].

OBJECTIVE: To investigate clinical effect of tendons pulling,poking and kneading for the treatment of external humeral epicondylitis. METHODS: From January 2018 to December 2021,a multicenter randomized controlled study was performed to collect 192 patients with external humeral epicondylitis in Wangjing Hospital,Beijing Dianli Hospital,and Beijing Fengsheng Osteotraumatology Hospital,respectively,and they were divided into treatment group and control group by random number table method. There were 96 patients in treatment group,including 36 males and 60 females,aged from 28 to 60 years old with an average of (41.20±5.50) years old;the course of disease ranged from 1 to 14 days with an average of (5.24±1.35) days;they were treated once every other day for 2 weeks. There were 96 patients in control group ,including 33 males and 63 females,aged from 26 to 60 years old with an average of (43.35±7.75) years old;the course of disease ranged from 1 to 14 days with an average of (5.86±1.48) days;they were treated with topical voltaalin combined with elbow joint fixation for 2 weeks. Visual analogue scale (VAS) and Hospital for Surgery Scoring System (HSS) elbow pronation and supination angles,wrist metacarpal flexion and dorsal extension angles,elbow tenderness between two groups were compared before treatment and at 1,3,5,7,11 and 13 days after treatment;Hospital for Surgery Scoring System 2 (HSS2) was compared before treatment and the final treatment. RESULTS: All patients were followed up for 10 to 14 days with an average of (12±1.6) days. VAS between treatment group and control group before treatment were 6.83±1.36 and 6.79±1.58,respectively,and decreased to 1.49±1.09 and 2.11±1.81 after the final treatment. VAS of treatment group were significantly lower than those of control group at 1,3,5,7,9,11 and 13 days after treatment (P<0.05). HSS between two groups were 61.73±11.00 and 36.47±12.45 before treatment,respectively,and increased to 94.42±5.9 and 91.44±9.11 at the final treatment. HSS of treatment group were significantly higher than those of control group at 1,3,5,7,9,11 and 13 days after treatment (P<0.05). On the 5th day after treatment,the external and internal rotation angles of elbow in treatment group were (66.41±12.69) ° and (66.35±13.54) °,while those in control group were (62.08±16.03) ° and (61.77±16.35) °. On the 7th day after treatment,the external and internal rotation angles of elbow were (69.79±12.64) ° and (70.02±13.55) ° in treatment group,and (65.28±15.86) ° and (65.09±16.67) ° in control group. Elbow joint motion in treatment group was higher than that in control group (P<0.05). On the 5th day after treatment,angles of wrist dorsiflexion and palm flexion were (39.43±15.94) ° and (46.68±11.10) ° in treatment group,and (38.51±18.49) ° and (44.27±13.58) ° in control group. On the 7th day after treatment,angles of wrist dorsiflexion and palm flexion were (42.52±16.50) ° and (49.23±10.96) ° in treatment group,and (41.18±20.09) ° and (46.64±14.63) ° in control group. The motion of wrist joint in treatment group was higher than that in control group (P<0.05). On the 13th day after treatment,HSS2 in treatment group 93.61±6.32 were higher than those in control group 92.06±7.94(P<0.05). There was no significant difference in elbow tenderness between two groups at each time point (P>0.05). CONCLUSION: Voltaren external treatment combined with elbow fixation and tendons pulling,poking and kneading could effectively improve symptoms of external humeral epicondylitis. Compared with voltaren external treatment,tendons pulling,poking and kneading has advantages of longer analgesic time and better elbow function recovery.

Functional Free Muscle Transfer for Reconstruction of Traumatic Adult Brachial Plexus Injuries.

Traumatic brachial plexus injury is the most common indication for functional free muscle transfer, and elbow flexion recovery is the functional target, followed by shoulder stability and hand reanimation. In this article, we provide a literature review of functional free muscle transfer (FFMT) for adult traumatic brachial plexus injuries and the surgical technical recommendations to achieve the best functional results with FFMT for adult traumatic brachial plexus injuries.

Sex Disparities Among Fellowship Program Directors in Orthopaedic Surgery.

BACKGROUND: Women are underrepresented in the orthopaedic surgery workforce in the U.S. The purpose of this study was to elucidate the representation of women among fellowship program directors (PDs) in orthopaedic surgery. METHODS: This was a retrospective cohort study of fellowship PDs in orthopaedic surgery during the 2022 to 2023 academic year. Academic, training, and demographic characteristics were collected from internet-based resources. Participation-to-prevalence ratios (PPRs) were calculated for both men and women. A PPR of <0.8 indicated underrepresentation and a PPR of >1.2 indicated overrepresentation. Bivariate analyses were utilized to assess the correlation between sex diversity and geographic region and between sex diversity and Accreditation Council for Graduate Medical Education (ACGME)-accreditation status. The relationship between the median annual salary and the sex diversity of each orthopaedic subspecialty was analyzed with use of the Pearson correlation coefficient. RESULTS: This study included 600 fellowship PDs, 40 (6.7%) of whom were women. In total, 24.5% of the fellowship PDs were assistant professors (8.8% women versus 91.2% men, p < 0.001); 26.2% were associate professors (9.6% women versus 90.4% men, p < 0.001); 36.8% were full professors (4.5% women versus 95.5% men, p < 0.001); and 12.5% were unranked (2.7% women versus 97.3% men, p < 0.001). The representation of women increased with academic rank, as reflected in their prevalence at the assistant (PPR = 0.67), associate (PPR = 0.77), and full professor (PPR = 0.80) levels. Among the orthopaedic subspecialties, musculoskeletal oncology (19.0%), pediatric orthopaedics (14.6%), and hand surgery (12.6%) had the highest proportions of women fellowship PDs. PPRs were lowest for orthopaedic sports medicine (PPR = 0.35), shoulder and elbow (PPR = 0.45), and adult reconstruction (PPR = 0.52). Women PDs had equitable representation in musculoskeletal oncology (PPR = 1.17), hand surgery (PPR = 1.02), foot and ankle (PPR = 0.84), and orthopaedic trauma (PPR = 0.80). Median subspecialty compensation was negatively correlated with the prevalence of women among fellowship PDs (r = -0.70, p = 0.036). Geographic region was not associated with sex diversity (p = 0.434), but programs with ACGME accreditation had significantly more women fellowship PDs than those without (11.0% versus 3.9%, p < 0.001). CONCLUSIONS: Women are underrepresented among orthopaedic fellowship PDs, especially in certain subspecialties (orthopaedic sports medicine, shoulder and elbow, and adult reconstruction). More research is needed to understand the barriers that impact the representation of women among leadership positions in orthopaedic surgery. CLINICAL RELEVANCE: Greater sex diversity among fellowship PDs may help to increase the recruitment of women into orthopaedic subspecialties. The equitable consideration of orthopaedic surgeons from all backgrounds for leadership positions can increase workforce diversity, which may improve the vitality of the orthopaedic community.

Dynamic Stress Ultrasound Assessment of Professional Baseball Players' Elbows After Ulnar Collateral Ligament Reconstruction.

BACKGROUND: There is a paucity of data analyzing dynamic stress ultrasound (SUS) findings in elite pitchers who have undergone ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) reconstruction (UCLR) and returned to sport. PURPOSE: To identify longitudinal, perioperative changes in the elbows of professional baseball pitchers who have undergone UCLR and to compare these findings with a matched cohort of healthy pitchers. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: This study used prospectively collected data from dynamic elbow SUS analyses of professional baseball pitchers within a single Major League Baseball organization. Pitchers were divided into 2 cohorts: a UCLR cohort and healthy cohort. The UCLR cohort eligibility included availability of (1) SUS from preseason of injury/UCLR and (2) SUS from ≥2 years after surgery. These players were 1:1 matched to players with no history of upper extremity injury to form the healthy cohort. Ligament thickness and ulnohumeral joint space at rest and under stress were directly measured. Joint laxity was calculated by subtracting joint space at rest from joint space under stress. The term "relative" was used to describe calculated differences where nondominant measurements were subtracted from dominant-side measurements. RESULTS: Eight pitchers were included in the UCLR group and matched to 8 healthy pitchers (mean age at initial SUS examination, 19.6 years). At a minimum follow-up of 2 years, there were no significant differences between groups in terms of relative or dominant arm rest space, stress space, or laxity. Longitudinally (final measurements - baseline measurements), the mean relative ulnohumeral rest space decreased in the UCLR group and increased in the healthy group (-0.36 mm vs +0.50 mm; P = .032). The finding of increased UCL thickness in the UCLR group was expected, as UCL grafts are typically thicker than native ligaments. CONCLUSION: Ulnhohumeral joint stability was achieved after UCLR as indicated by similar rest space, stress space, and joint laxity in dominant arms compared with a matched healthy cohort. A significant decrease in relative rest space after UCLR may represent the achievement of stability in surgery patients. Alternatively, the increase in ulnohumeral rest space seen in the healthy cohort may represent adaptive changes from pitching at a professional level.

The Utility of Stress Ultrasound in Identifying Risk Factors for Elbow Ulnar Collateral Ligament Tear: A Longitudinal Study of 203 Professional Baseball Players.

BACKGROUND: Injuries to the medial ulnar collateral ligament (UCL) are common among baseball pitchers due to repetitive stress on the soft tissue stabilizers of the elbow during pitching. Dynamic stress ultrasound (SUS) can be used to evaluate the UCL and ulnohumeral joint to identify anatomic risk factors of those who will require UCL reconstruction (UCLR). PURPOSE: To determine whether any adaptive or morphological changes detectable on SUS can predict injury to the UCL in professional baseball pitchers. STUDY DESIGN: Cohort study; Level of evidence, 3. METHODS: A total of 203 professional baseball pitchers who underwent SUS at preseason training sessions over the course of 18 years were categorized into 1 of 2 groups: those without a history of shoulder, arm, elbow, or forearm surgery or injuries (healthy cohort; n = 184) and those who underwent UCLR the same season as SUS (UCLR cohort; n = 19). Ligament thickness, joint spacing, and laxity were compared. An additional matched cohort analysis was conducted using 10 players from each group to detect differences in the progression of UCL and ulnohumeral joint measures in the year before injury. RESULTS: The UCLR cohort, when compared with the healthy cohort, had higher relative (ie, nondominant-side measurements subtracted from dominant-side measurements) resting ulnohumeral joint space (median, 0.50 vs 0.20 mm, respectively; P = .006) and higher rates of hypoechoic foci (57.9% vs 30.4%, respectively; P = .030). Players of both groups had similar dominant UCL thickness (P = .161), ulnohumeral joint space at rest (P = .321), space under stress (P = .498), and laxity (P = .796). Groups did not differ in terms of relative UCL thickness, ulnohumeral joint space under stress, or relative laxity. In the year before UCL injury, the UCLR cohort, compared with the matched healthy cohort, had a greater increase in mean dominant UCL thickness (0.94 vs -0.60 mm, respectively; P = .038) and a greater increase in relative median UCL thickness (1.35 vs -0.35 mm, respectively; P = .045). Players in the healthy cohort were statistically older than those in the UCLR cohort (23 vs 22 years, respectively; P = .004). No differences in ulnohumeral stress spacing or laxity were detected. CONCLUSION: SUS of players who underwent UCLR demonstrated a progressive increase in UCL thickness over 1 year, higher rates of hypoechoic foci, and increased ulnohumeral rest space compared with SUS of uninjured players.